The oral approach

The oral approach

The oral approach was developed from 1930 to 1960 by two of the most important British linguists of the 20th century, Harold Palmer and AS Hornsby. Until Palmer and Hornsby’s  study linguists were familiar only with the direct method, as well as the work of linguists of the 19th century, such as Otto Jesperson and Daniel Jones.

A number of  researches on language learning and the importance  of  the ability to read, have led to the notion of “vocabulary control”. It turned out that languages have a basic vocabulary of about 2,000 words, most of which frequently used in written texts, and it is assumed that mastery of these would be a great help for reading comprehension. Parallel to this is the concept of “grammar checker”, emphasising the sentence patterns most commonly found in a spoken conversation. In this way the basics of grammar are taught through an oral approach. These models have been incorporated into dictionaries and student handbooks.

The main difference between the oral approach and the direct method is that the methods developed under this approach would have the theoretical principles that guide the selection of content, the degree of difficulty of the exercises, the presentation of the material and  exercises.

Despite the fact that the Oral Method was mentioned above, this should not be confused with the direct method which has been examined previously.

Although this approach is currently unknown among many language teachers, elements of it are nowadays used in language teaching, it being the basis for English teaching as a foreign language. This methodology has been used in textbooks until the 80s with elements still appearing in current texts. Many of the structural elements of this approach have been called into question in 1960, causing changes in the approach itself that led to language communication. However, its emphasis on oral practice, its grammar and its sentence structures are still widespread among teachers of language and  it remains popular in the countries where the foreign language curricula are still heavily based on grammar. 

The main features of this approach are:

1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. The material is taught orally before it is presented in its written form.

2. The target language is the language of the classroom.

3. The new language points are introduced through practical situations.

4. The selection procedure of the vocabulary is monitored to ensure that the general vocabulary essential is covered.

5. The items of grammar are classified according to the principle that the simplest forms must be taught before more complex ones.

6. Reading and writing will be introduced only when the basics of grammar and vocabulary will be established.

In this way, new words and phrases are taught with examples, and not through grammar explanations or descriptions. The goal of this method is not to learn through the translations but through images that include objects, pictures, actions and facial expressions. The techniques used by this approach involve mainly replacement, repetitions, dictated and controlled readings.

During the first part of learning the student merely has to listen, repeat what the professor says and answer questions. The second phase will encourage the student to a more active participation.

The teacher’s role is very important because he/she must be the role model, the one who guides and manipulates the lesson. The professor is essential for the success of the method as the textbook describes the activities to be done, but it will be the professor himself who will bring them to an end. Visual aids are important in addition to the textbook.

The lesson will have the following structure:

 1. Pronunciation.

2. Revision (preparation of new jobs if necessary).

3. Presentation of new patterns or vocabulary.

4. Oral practice.

5. Reading material or writing exercises.

 

 

20 Tips for language learning!

I summarized 20 tips for language learning.  I hope you like it!

1. When first starting out, try to just listen to your target language as much as possible without attempting to speak it. This helps you acquiring an ear for the language.

2. Develop a deep desire to learn the language. Without a desire you won’t get far. 3. Use time for you language learning which is ordinarily wasted. Standing on line, waiting for an elevator, etc., are all opportunities not to be missed.

4. Think in terms of phrases and not individual words. It’s easy to remember a phrase like “a breakfast of bread and butter” than it is to remember each word in isolation.

5. Use your imagination. Visual images can help you remember words.

6. Invent stories using as much of your new vocabulary as possible. Any words you can’t think off in your target language use your native language and then look up those words later.

7. Listen to internet radio broadcasts and podcasts as much as possible.

8. Likewise, watch videos.

9. Utilize the BBC for news broadcast and lessons in your target language.

10. Utilize flashcards or small notebooks to review vocabulary words and phrases.

11. Invent funny or silly mnemonic phrases to help you remember new words or concepts.

12. Use a bilingual dictionary often, not just to look up specific words, but browse through it.

13. Draw columns on paper, words in your native language on the right and target language on the left. This allows your eye to easily scan to one column to the next and it helps your brain absorbs that word.

14. Write a simple children’s book in your target language. Make it silly and utilize simple concepts as though a child was actually going to read the book.

15. Learn the past tense before learning the present tense, and save the future tense for last.

16. Practice unfamiliar sounds in your target language in the shower or in the car. Example: the English “th” sound. Say it over and over.

17. Use computer programs and free online dictionaries.

18. When reading, read more slowly and deliberately than you do in your target language. Later, as you progress, your speed will increase to normal levels.

19. Read bilingual books or books in the target language that you are already familiar in your native language.

20.  Don’t be afraid to make a mistake.

Il Competency- Based Language Teaching

Il Competency- Based Language Teaching

La maggior parte degli approcci e metodi studiati finora si focalizzano sugli input dell’apprendimento del linguaggio. Viceversa il Compentency – Based Education (CBE) è un movimento focalizzato sugli output dell’apprendimento, nello sviluppo dei programmi della lingua. Il CBE affronta ciò che gli allievi si aspettano di fare con il linguaggio. Il movimento è nato negli Stati Uniti nel 1970 e si riferisce ad un esperimento educativo che richiama la definizione degli obiettivi educativi in termini precisi di consapevolezza, competenza, e comportamento. Termini che gli allievi dovrebbero acquisire alla fine del corso di studio.

Il Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT)  è un’ applicazione dei princìpi fondamentali del CBE per l’apprendimento delle lingue. Questo approccio si è diffuso alla fine degli anni 70, ma solo recentemente è riemerso in alcune parti del mondo, come Australia.

CBLT è basato su una percettiva funzionale  della natura del linguaggio. È pensato per insegnare la lingua in relazione con il contesto sociale nel quale si utilizza. Il linguaggio funge sempre da tramite di interazione e comunicazione tra le persone e gli obiettivi proposti. Per questo motivo questo approccio è utilizzato soprattutto quando gli allievi hanno bisogni specifici e  ruoli particolari.

Le attività di apprendimento utilizzate in CBLT possono considerarsi attività sistematicamente progettate per ottenere una competenza concreta. Queste attività sono reali compiti che “possono essere collegati a qualsiasi dominio della vita, ma soprattutto a situazioni di sopravvivenza orientate e legate al mondo del lavoro”

Le situazioni tipiche per le quali queste competenze sono sviluppate sono ad esempio: domande o colloqui di lavoro.

Secondo Auerbach (1986) ci sono otto caratteristiche fondamentali per distinguere il Competency-Based Language Teaching:

1. Ci si focalizza sul buon funzionamento della società. L’obiettivo è quello di insegnare la lingua al fine di preparare gli studenti per le diverse esigenze del mondo.
2. Si focalizza l’attenzione sulle abilità di vita per determinare che il linguaggio è sempre insegnato come mezzo di comunicazione in compiti concreti, in cui sono richieste forme linguistiche specifiche.
3. L’attenzione si concentra su ciò che gli studenti possono fare con la lingua e con certi comportamenti.
4. L’istruzione modulare sottolinea che le competenze che vengono insegnate devono essere sistematicamente separate in parti gestibili, di modo che il docente e gli allievi possano gestire i contenuti e realizzare il loro corso.
5. I risultati  degli studenti sono di dominio pubblico, conosciuti e condivisi sia dagli studenti che dall’insegnante. Pertanto, gli studenti potranno vedere i loro errori, correggerli e sapere chiaramente quali comportamenti e competenze ci si aspetta da loro.
6. La valutazione è continua e permanente, questo significa che gli studenti vengono testati prima dell’inizio del corso per determinare quali competenze gli mancano, e sono testati di nuovo dopo aver ricevuto delle istruzioni per verificare se hanno raggiunto le competenze necessarie o meno.
7. La padronanza si dimostrata attraverso il raggiungimento degli obiettivi. La valutazione si basa sui risultati ottenuti dai comportamenti specifici degli studenti, invece che dalla valutazione tradizionale.
8. Individualizzata e centrata l’attenzione sullo studente, le istruzioni date dal docente non sono basate sul tempo, ma sui progressi che ogni singolo studente fa. Pertanto, l’insegnante deve concentrarsi su ogni singolo allievo, al fine di aiutarlo in quelle aree in cui le competenze sono carenti

L’insegnante è tenuto a fornire un feedback positivo e costruttivo, al fine di aiutare gli studenti a migliorare le loro abilità. L’insegnante deve dare ordini chiari e spiegazioni per fare in modo che ogni studente comprenda il compito che sta per affrontare.  Un’altra funzione del docente nel CBLT è quello di selezionare le attività di apprendimento e fare la progettazione di un programma di studio in base alle competenze  che gli studenti stanno per acquisire.

Le competenze che gli studenti imparano sono chiaramente definite in pubblico, in modo che “lo studente conosca esattamente ciò che deve essere appreso”

L’obiettivo principale dell’allievo nel Competency-Based Language Teaching è quello di essere in grado di adattare e trasferire le conoscenze da un ambiente ad un altro.

All’inizio del corso gli studenti devono passare attraverso una valutazione primaria, in cui l’insegnante determina il livello di competenza di partenza. Dopo di che gli allievi sono raggruppati sulla base del “loro livello di conoscenza della lingua, il loro ritmo di apprendimento, i loro bisogni, ed i loro obiettivi sociali per imparare la lingua”

Thank you!!!

Thank you all for your visits: D

The natural approach

The natural approach

In 1977, Tracy Terrell, a Californian Spanish teacher, developed a new philosophy of teaching, which he called the Natural Approach. At first, this approach was tested only in Spanish classes, but shortly after it was introduced in primary schools and subsequently in higher grades. At the same time Terrell joined forces with Krashen, a linguist at the University of Southern California, and together they developed the principles and activities of the natural approach, described in their book “The Natural Approach” published in 1983.

Krashen and Terrel consider communication as a primary function of language, and their approach is focused mainly on teaching communication skills; they define their natural approach as an example of communicative approach. According to Krashen and Terrel the main problem of the other methods is that they focus on the grammatical component, rather than focusing on the nature of language itself.
The language is seen as a vehicle for communicating meanings and messages.

They stress the importance that “acquisition takes place only when people understand the message in the language they are learning,” 18.
Krashen had devised the theory of input, which is fundamental in this path. He proposes a model consisting of five hypotheses. It is a model that Krashen drew up in 1977 and to which he made minor changes before publishing the final version in 1985. In this section we will describe it briefly.

The fundamental hypothesis of the researcher is that there are two essentially different ways to learn a language: through acquisition and learning19 .

Students during an English lesson

For Krashen it is easier to learn a language in a spontaneous and unconscious way almost while not paying attention – as it happens with children who are learning both their mother tongue and a second language. The children use both languages without pausing to explicitly consider grammar rules, which are in fact acquired unconsciously. Learning, however, is a conscious process, that explicitly addresses the linguistic form.

The second hypothesis is closely related to the first. For Krashen the internal factor is particularly important and should be constantly monitored.

The third hypothesis is nothing more than a summary of the many studies that have shown that the acquisition of grammar rules of the second language are learned in a precise order. It is important to notice that according to Krashen the order applies when rules are acquired, or learned, unconsciously; if they are learned, and applied consciously with the monitor, it is possible that the student might not learn them in the natural order.

The fourth hypothesis is that the input should always be comprehensible. For Krashen, the only real way to gain knowledge is through the constant exposure to comprehensible inputs.

The fifth hypothesis is that of the “affective filter”: this theory explains why students exposed to the same amount of comprehensible inputs learn at different paces. According to Krashen, comprehensible input is not all we are exposed to when learning a language. There are other factors that affect the learning process and one of them is a “filter” that increases or diminishes learning speed based on affective factors, such as the desire to integrate into the new culture, good relations with the natives and their language in general, the levels of anxiety, as well as self-esteem and security.

The natural approach is a method designed for beginners and has the purpose of helping them in the immediate. The principles established by this approach are applicable in many situations, they always change according to the specific objectives and the needs of the students. Krashen and Terrel believe it is very important to communicate with the students and know what they expect from the second language.

The professor has three main roles in the classroom:
First, the teacher is the primary source that generates understandable inputs for the students.
– Second, the teacher must create an interesting atmosphere, fun but with a few filters in order to assure affective learning. The professor shouldn’t ask the students to speak until they feel ready, and should find material of high interest for the students.
– Third, the teacher must choose and orchestrate a mix of activities to happen during lessons. The teacher is responsible for choosing the material and also to use it. According to Krashen and Terrel these materials have to be helpful and interesting to the students.

The natural approach can be defined by one concept: students should not try to learn the language in the most ordinary way, since they can lose interest in the activities regarding mere communication. Students can decide when to speak, what to say and what linguistic expressions to use during their speeches.

Students have four types of responsibility during the lesson:

1. Provide information on the specific objectives and focus on topics and situations according to their needs.
2. Take an active role to ensure the comprehensibility of input. They will learn how to manage and use the main techniques of conversation to adjust the input.
3. Deciding when and how to start producing talking.
4. The exercises of learning, such as those of grammar, must be part of the program, and together with the teacher the students must decide how much time to devote and how to correct them.

It is expected that students participate in communicate with each other.
Among the main activities carried out in class, we will find those associated with common classroom materials, such as books, photographs, plans, brochures, maps, and so on. The use of these materials will depend on the level and the age of the students.

The Communicative Language Teaching

The Communicative Language Teaching

 The origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach or Communicative approach date back to 1960. Until then, the CLT was the main method for teaching English to foreign students.

It was in 1970 that the approach began to expand. Before then, the students kept listening and repeating the pronunciation and grammar of dialogues instead of focusing on communication procedures. Proponents of CLT stated that too much emphasis was given to the repetition of concepts and this did not help students to acquire the appropriate communication skills. First and foremost the CLT aims at helping the students to use the language in different contexts and create sentences with complete meaning rather than sentences with perfect grammar. This means that the foreign language is learned based on how the student develops his communication skills.

 The communicative approach appeared when the field of foreign languages was ready for a radical change. The Communicative approach and the Audio-Linguistic approach were very effective and for this reason they were almost considered a method.

 

Main procedures of the CLT:

 – Students learn the language through communication.

– An authentic communication flow will be the focus of the activities developed in the classroom.

– The notification shall include the integration of the various skills of language.

– Learning is a process of creative construction that includes trial and error.

 Among the activities carried out in class are those in pairs or groups, which have as a main goal that of teaching negotiation and cooperation among students. These activities also focus on the acquisition of fluidity to help students increase their confidence. Using stimulation games, in which students improve their language functions and practice activities also focused on acquiring a correct use of grammar and pronunciation. Moreover there are also alternative activities such as talks, exchange of information between students, games, interviews, and group projects.

Johnson and Johnson identify five key features that highlight the current applications of this methodology:

 

1. Appropriateness: the use of the language reflects its own appropriateness depending on the situation, the role of the participants, and objectives of the communication. So the students will be able to use the language in a formal setting that  is at the same time casual.

2. The crux of the message: the students must be able to create and understand the underlying message .

3. Psycholinguistic processes: CLT activities are aimed at improving the students’ cognitive abilities and other processes that are important during the acquisition of a second language.

4. Take risks: students are encouraged to participate and in this way to be wrong in order for them to learn from their own mistakes. In doing so, students are also tempted to apply different communication strategies.

5. Free practice: the CLT involves the simultaneous use of a variety of sub skills rather than practicing individual skills one piece at a time. 

 Currently, the Communicative Language Teaching continues in its classical form, and is adopted by many textbooks and courses. It also influenced many approaches and methods in language teaching because it is considered one of the most comprehensive ever, also because it includes all the basic techniques of teaching. It is an approach that allows students to be free and to communicate in an almost autonomous way from the very beginning. The student has a very active role in the classroom and this means he can acquire greater confidence.

 

The Competency-Based Language Teaching

The Competency-Based Language Teaching

Most of the approaches and methods developed so far focus on the inputs of language learning. Conversely, the Competency – Based Education (CBE) is a movement focused on the output of learning. The CBE addresses the issue of what students expect to do with the language they want to learn. The movement was born in the United States in 1970 and it refers to an educational experiment that outlines the definition of educational objectives in terms of specific knowledge, skills, and behaviour.

The Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) is an application of the fundamental principles of CBE for language learning. This approach was common in the late 70s, but only recently has re-emerged in some parts of the world, such as Australia.

The CBLT is based on the perceptual and functional nature of language. It is meant to teach the language in relation to the social context in which you use it. The language always serves as a means of interaction and communication between people. For this reason, this approach is used especially when the students have special needs and/or particular roles.

The learning exercises used in CBLT activities can be considered to be systematically designed to achieve a specific competence. These tasks are real tasks and “can be connected to any domain of life, but especially in survival-oriented and/or work related situations”

 Typical situations for which these skills are developed are for example: job applications or interviews.

According to Auerbach (1986) there are eight characteristic features to distinguish the Competency-Based Language Teaching: 14

1. It focuses on society related issues. The goal is to teach the language in order to prepare students for the diverse needs of the world.
2. It focuses on life skills to underline that language is still taught as a means of communication in practical tasks.
3. The focus is on what students can do with language, as well as with certain behaviours.
4. The skills taught in the programme should be separated into modules and or into manageable parts, so that the teacher and the students can manage the content and fulfil their objectives.
5. The student tests’ results are of public domain, known and shared by both the students and the teacher. Therefore, students can see their mistakes, correct them and know clearly what behaviours and skills are expected of them.
6. Evaluation is continuous and permanent, meaning that students are tested before the course to determine what skills they lack, and are tested again after receiving instructions to check if they have achieved the necessary skills or not.
7. Mastery is demonstrated through the achievement of objectives. The evaluation is based on the results obtained from the specific behaviour of the students, rather than by traditional assessment.
8. Individualised and focused attention are given to each student, the instructions given by the teacher are not based on time but on the progress that each student makes. Therefore, the teacher needs to focus on each individual student in order to help in those areas where skills are lacking.

The teacher is required to provide a positive and constructive feedback in order to help students improve their skills. The teacher should give clear orders and explanations to make sure that every student understands the task that he/she going to face. Another function of the teacher in CBLT is to select learning activities and to design a curriculum based on the skills that students are about to acquire.

The skills that students learn are clearly defined in public, so that “the student knows exactly what is to be learned”15.
The main objective of the pupil in the Competency-Based Language Teaching is to be able to adapt and transfer the knowledge from one environment to another.

At the beginning of the course, students must go through a primary survey, in which the teacher determines the level of competence at the beginning of the course. After that the students are grouped on the basis of “their level of proficiency, their pace of learning, their needs and their social objectives to learn the language”

El enfoque lexical

El enfoque lexical

 En los años noventa, primero en Inglaterra y luego en el norte de Europa y Estados Unidos, también ha sido adoptada en la enseñanza de idiomas extranjeros una perspectiva teórica, que considera el idioma como algo que se compone de algo más que gramática y vocabulario.

Como hemos visto en este estudio, los enfoque y los métodos de enseñanza exponen los objetivos de la educación, el tipo de programa que se utiliza durante las lecciones y el énfasis que se da a toda la clase. El enfoque lexical en la enseñanza de idiomas dice que no se aprende sólo a través de la gramática, de las funciones, de las nociones o otros tipos de conocimiento, sino a través del léxico, que es una combinación de palabras.

El enfoque lexical para la enseñanza de idiomas refleja la creencia de la centralidad del léxico en la estructura de la lengua, de su uso y, en particular, de las unidades léxicas o “chuncks” que son “piezas” del lenguaje prefabricado mucho más complejos que una sola palabra. Se pueden contar decenas de miles de chuncks, y parece que la fluidez lingüística, incluso en nuestra lengua materna, dependa de la adquisición de estas unidades léxicas. Numerosas teorías se han centrado en la disposición de los elementos léxicos y unidades múltiples de voz y muchos libros de texto se basa en esto.

“Los profesores que utilizan el enfoque lexical, podrán, en lugar de analizar el lenguaje sólo cuando es posible, dirigir la atención de los estudiantes en chuncks cada vez más amplios”

En el enfoque lexical, Lewis explica porqué está mal, difundir la idea de que la gramática es la base del aprendizaje de idiomas y que la adquisición del sistema gramatical garantiza una comunicación efectiva. La gramática es importante, y Lewis no lo niega, pero especialmente para aquellos que ya utilizan el segundo idioma competentemente. En las primeras etapas del aprendizaje sería necesario desplazar el énfasis de la adquisición de la gramática y del vocabulario, fomentando la competencia receptiva, observando similitudes y diferencias, comparando, seleccionando y combinando, en lugar de memorizar reglas abstractas.

El aspecto más importante de la lengua es comunicar el significado, es decir, el léxico, pero no comprendido como palabras individuales. De hecho, muchas partes de la lengua sólo se pueden utilizar en combinaciones fijas, fuertes o frecuentes, es decir, en unidades indivisibles o sólo parcialmente modificadas.

 En conclusión, el enfoque léxico cambia el enfoque de la entera comunicación y no de la forma. A los estudiantes les resulta más gratificante entender y comunicarse. Su autoestima crece y se muestran más interesados en aprender el idioma. Este es un enfoque que ha tenido y tiene actualmente mucho éxito gracias a las optimas consideraciones de los críticos y de los mismos alumnos

The theory of multiple intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences

 The theory of multiple intelligences is a theory based on the study by Howard Gardner at Harvard University. For Gardner intelligence is not seen as a unit or as something that meets several specific skills, but a set of multiple intelligences, different and independent. Gardner defines intelligence as “the ability to solve problems or create products that are of value in one or more cultures.”

Gardner claims that all human beings have these intelligences, but that people use them in different ways. He believes that anyone can improve their understanding through practice and study. The students are seen as individuals who have different styles, preferences and intelligence. Pedagogically is more likely to succeed when you are aware of these differences and when these are analysed. Both in general education and in the language, attention focuses precisely on those differences. Gardner (1933) proposed his vision of natural human talent, and named it 

 

Gardner describes eight types of intelligences:

1. Linguistics: refers to the ability to use the language in a special and creative way, as it happens with politicians, writers, poets, etc.. These individuals have the ability to speak and write effectively.

2. Logical-mathematical: refers to the ability to think rationally, as in the case of economists, engineers, scientists, doctors, etc.. These individuals have the ability to calculate, formulation, verification and assumptions.

3. Spatial: refers to the ability of perceiving space, as in the case of artists, photographers, architects, sculptors, painters, and so on. Are those who have the ability to make visual creations.

4. Music, for those who have a good ear, as musicians, composers, music critics, etc.. They have the ability to create and analyse music.

5. Bodily / kinetic: for those who have the ability to coordinate their body such as athletes and actors, models, etc.. They have the ability to communicate through their body.

6. Interpersonal: refers to the ability to work with others, such as administrators, teachers, psychologists, therapists, etc.. They have the ability to recognise and respond to the feelings of others.

7. Intrapersonal: refers to the ability to know themselves and to recognise how to apply their talents. See mature people who have a knowledge of their own talent. They have the ability to meditate and give the best of themselves.

8. Naturalist: Refers to the ability to understand and analyse the patterns of nature. They have the ability to identify and classify the members of new species and are also able to discover them.

 

The idea of multiple intelligences has drawn the attention of many educators as well as that of the general public. Many schools have used this theory to show that the teaching goes beyond books, pens and pencils.

 The parents along with the teachers have the task of recognising the talent of their children / students in order to create the necessary conditions to increase and develop their talents.

 There are no goals to education through the theory of multiple intelligences in linguistic terms. There is no curriculum to follow, although there is a sequence of steps to take as an alternative.

This sequence includes four basic steps:

 1. Awakening the intelligence through the multi-sensory experiences involving touch, smell, taste, see, etc.. In this way, students will be able to perceive what is around them.

2. Amplifying intelligence: Students reinforce and enhance their intelligence by using objects or events of their own choosing and defining with others the properties and contexts of experience of these objects and events. 

3. Teaching with and for intelligence: at this point intelligence is connected to the  goal of the lesson, that is some aspects of language learning. This is done through the creation of small projects and discussion groups.

4. Transfer of intelligence: students reflect on the experiences learned in the three previous steps and connect them with new challenges that will be exhibited in the real world.

 

 

The Whole Language

 The Whole Language

 The expression Whole Language was created in 1980 by a group of literature professors who  opposed the method of teaching reading and writing a language  separately. According to them, a language should be taught as a single unit. The Whole Language approach is a theory developed to help children learn to read and emphasises the learning of reading and writing with ease and pleasure, focusing on real communication. In 1990 it became popular in the United States for being a exciting and innovative approach to teach literature to children of primary school.

The main principles of the Whole Language are:

1. The use of authentic literature rather than superficial, specifically prepared texts and exercises to practice the designated individual reading skill.

2. Attention to real and natural events rather than already written stories, so that the students may compare them to their own  

3. Reading texts of high interest, in particular literature.

4. Reading  is considered as a way to understand the language.

5. Writing exercises are directed to  a real audience and not simply as a way to practice writing skills.

6. Writing is a process through which students can explore and discover the meaning of words.

7. Promotes the use of texts made by students rather than by teachers or others.

8. Integrating skills as reading writing and listening.

9. Reading and writing exercises are shared with other students.

10. Students are encouraged to take risks and explore; acceptance of errors as a sign of learning rather than as a failure.

 The teacher is seen as a figure that helps and promotes an active participation to the learning community, rather than as an language expert.

The professor studies the students and not the subject matter and seeks to teach at appropriate times, so that the lessons are never the same. The teacher’s goal is to create the right climate for teaching and  he/she should negotiate the programme of the course with the students .

Students should collaborate with other students, as well as with the teacher. Students are also evaluators, and evaluate their own learning and that of others with the help of the teacher. Students also help choose the material to be used during the lesson as well as classroom activities. “The choice process is vital during the course of the Whole Language lessons, because without the ability to choose activities, materials, conversations with others, students cannot use the language for their own purposes.” 

 The main activities of the Whole Language learning are:

– Reading and writing individually or in small groups

– Ungraded dialogue journals

– Writing portfolio

– Writing conferences

– Books written by students

– Story writing

Most of these activities are also used in other approaches, such as Communicative Language Teaching and Content-Based Teaching.

The Whole Language movement is not a true teaching method, but an approach to learn  how to see language as a whole unit. Every language teacher is free to implement the approach that he/she considers most appropriate to the needs of the class. The great advantage of this approach is that it focuses mainly on experiences and activities that are relevant in the lives of the students through the use of authentic material.

El método directo

El método directo

El método directo, nació en Alemania y en Francia alrededor del 1900 y sus creadores fueron Berlitz y Sauze. Este método se basa en la idea de que el aprendizaje de un segundo idioma debe ser una imitación de la lengua materna, ya que es la forma natural en la que los individuos aprenden cualquier idioma. Este método pone gran énfasis en la correcta pronunciación del idioma que se esta aprendiendo.

De acuerdo con este método, el texto escrito debería mantenerse alejado del estudiante, hasta tener un conocimiento adecuado de la parte oral del idioma, al igual que un estudiante no utiliza el texto escrito hasta que tiene un conocimiento adecuado de su propio idioma.

“El aprendizaje de la escritura y la ortografía debe retrasarse hasta que el texto escrito no se ha introducido. La gramática y la traducción debe evitarse ya que esto daría lugar a la implicación de la lengua materna del estudiante. ”

Este método evita el uso del idioma nativo de los estudiantes y se concentra casi por completo en el segundo idioma.

El método directo tiene una sola regla: las traducciones escritas no están permitidas. Como pasó con el método Audio- Lingual, el método directo también se negó a utilizar las técnicas bases del método gramática- traducción y gracias a este motivo alcanzó una grande popularidad. Sus principios han sido aplicados durante varios años por los profesores y ha marcado la historia de las metodologías de enseñanza.

 

Principios y procedimientos:

1. Las instrucciones se dan exclusivamente en la segunda lengua.

2. Las habilidades de comunicación oral se enseñan de manera progresiva y mediante el intercambio de preguntas y respuestas entre el profesor y los estudiantes.

3. Todos los días se les enseña un número determinado de frases y vocabulario.

4. La gramática se enseña inductivamente.

5. El vocabulario concreto se enseña a través de demostraciones, objetos y fotografías, el vocabulario abstracto se aprende a través de asociación de ideas.

6. Se les enseña la conversación y la comprensión auditiva.

7. Se hace hincapié en la correcta pronunciación y gramática.

 

Estos principios se ven en la guía para la enseñanza oral de los idiomas:

No se traduce: se demuestra

Prohibido explicar: hay que implementar

No hacer nunca monólogos: Hacer preguntas

No imitar los errores: corregir

No hablar con palabras únicas: hacer frases

Nunca hables demasiado: haz hablar demasiado a los estudiantes

Nunca uses  libros: utiliza el plan de estudios

No dudes: sigue el plan de estudios

No vayas demasiado rápido: mantén a los estudiantes tranquilos

No hables en voz demasiado baja: habla con normalidad

No hables demasiado rápido: habla con  naturalidad

No te impacientes: hay que permanecer tranquilos

El método se basa en una sesión de preguntas y respuestas que comienzan con los nombres de objetos comunes, tales como puertas, mesas, lápices, etc. Se empieza de manera estimulante y el estudiante comienza a utilizar el idioma extranjero casi de inmediato.

El objetivo es aprender una cantidad concreta de palabras nuevas en cada lección con el fin de comunicarse de manera efectiva en el segundo idioma. Otro aspecto positivo de este método es que no solo el profesor dirige la lección si no que también el alumno tiene un papel activo durante esta.

A pesar de la popularidad del método directo en Europa, no todo el mundo lo comparte.  El lingüista inglés Henry Sweet reconoce sus defecto y afirma que tiene muchas características innovadoras en materia de enseñanza pero que le faltan las bases metodológicas. Sweet afirma también que aunque se centra casi exclusivamente en el uso de la segunda lengua en el aula, hay algunos aspectos que deberían ser analizados.

Il community Language Learning

 Il community Language Learning

 Il community Language Learning (CLL) è il nome del metodo sviluppato da Charles A. Curran e i suoi soci. Curran era uno specialista in consulenze e professore di psicologia alla Loyola University di Chicago. Trasferito sul piano pedagogico-linguistico, il metodo suggerisce che il rapporto ottimale da instaurare tra l’insegnante e l’allievo è analogo a quello che si stabilisce fra il terapeuta e il cliente. Il cliente in sede psicoterapeutica viene così equiparato all’allievo in età adulta alle prese con i problemi d’apprendimento di una seconda lingua. 

 L’attenzione si concentra sugli aspetti umanistici – affettivi, includendo le emozioni e i sentimenti così come la consapevolezza linguistica e l’abilità di comportamento.  

Curran aveva discusso diverse volte su ciò che lui chiamava “convalidation”  una sorta di valutazione positiva fra insegnante e allievi sullo sviluppo dell’altro. 

Il rapporto caratterizzato dalla convalidation è considerato essenziale per il processo d’apprendimento ed è un elemento chiave nelle procedure del metodo.

 Curran aveva messo insieme un gruppo di idee sui requisiti psicologici necessari per avere successo nell’ insegnamento. Queste idee sono raccolte sotto forma di acronimo: SARD, che può essere spiegato così: 

 S:  sta per sicurezza. Nonostante gli studenti si sentano sicuri, questi potranno trovare   comunque delle difficoltà nel momento in cui raggiungeranno un livello d’apprendimento soddisfacente. 

 A: sta per attenzione e aggressione. Il metodo riconosce che è possibile una mancanza di attenzione da parte degli allievi dovuta al poco coinvolgimento da parte del  professore. L’aggressione invece viene applicata attraverso la dimostrazione di ciò che si è imparato in classe, usando le nuove conoscenze come strumento per la propria messa in prova. 

 R: sta per ritenzione e riflessione. Nel caso in cui la persona è partecipe del processo d’apprendimento, ciò che impara diventa parte integrante della persona. La riflessione invece è il periodo consapevole di silenzio dentro il quadro della lezione, che permette all’allievo di fermarsi sui contenuti imparati. 

 D: sta per discriminazione. Avviene quando l’allievo è in grado di separare in categorie  le conoscenze che torneranno utili nella vita futura. 

 Questi aspetti della filosofia di Curran non affrontano soltanto gli aspetti  psicologici e cognitivi del processo ma influenzano anche gli impegni personali che l’allievo deve affrontare prima che il processo di acquisizione possa essere operato. 

 Maggini spiega con parole semplici ed efficaci cosa propone questo approccio: 

“Ma che cosa propone di innovativo sul piano della pedagogia linguistica il Community Language Learning? Si prevedono cinque fasi durante le quali gli studenti acquisiscono maggiore autonomia e padronanza nella lingua oggetto di studio. Durante le prime tre fasi però il discente è aiutato dall’insegnante in quanto la conversazione fra gli allievi non è diretta, ma mediata dal docente di lingua tramite la traduzione. I discenti formulano i messaggi nella loro lingua madre che vengono tradotti nella lingua d’arrivo dall’insegnante. I messaggi in forma di chunks vengono ripetuti agli altri studenti. Tali messaggi vengono registrati, ascoltati e successivamente trascritti. La trascrizione che costituisce il “testo” su cui fare lavorare successivamente tutta la classe contiene le parole nella L2 con accanto la traduzione delle parole equivalenti nella lingua madre.

La lingua parlata ha quindi l’assoluta priorità, il codice scritto risulta in questo modo relegato ai margini della pratica pedagogica. Sono gli studenti a determinare i contenuti dei loro dialoghi, è nel loro interesse guidare l’attività linguistica.”

 Questo approccio è stato considerato un punto di vista diverso e utile per l’insegnamento delle lingue straniere. Però, nonostante le recensioni positive che ha ricevuto, se si analizza più a fondo, ci si rende conto che non è un approccio adatto a tutti, (anche se in realtà nessun approccio o metodo lo sia) è un approccio in cui gli studenti hanno bisogno di una certa maturità e capacità d’apprendimento per seguirlo. Inoltre si concentra molto sui sentimenti e questo non è sempre positivo. Gli studenti devono avere una condizione di stabilità mentale ed essere consapevoli dei propri limiti e dei limiti dell’approccio.